War in the Kingdom of Mandara

The Mandara kingdom, and the Bornu empire, were among the most significant and well-organized states in the region. The Mandara kingdom had a history of conflicts with Bornu, and these clashes played a crucial role in shaping their relationship. Notably, Mandara was the sole Muslim state located south of Bornu, and it embraced Islam in the early 18th century, during the reign of Mai Bukar al-Hajj.

Dulo campaign

In the latter part of 1810, Adama assembled a sizable army and embarked on a campaign towards Mandara due to ongoing reports of Mandara’s hostility towards the Fulani. Adama established his camp at Petté, a few miles south of Dulo, the capital of Mandara. From there, he sent a letter to the Mai of Mandara, Bukar Djiama, asserting that Shehu Usman appointed him as Lamido and that Mandara fell under his jurisdiction, requiring the Mai to pay homage. In response, Bukar acknowledged Adama’s authority over the Fulani and sent him presents, including a female slave. However, he adamantly refused to compromise his own sovereignty over Mandara.

Afterwards, Adama swiftly moved his forces to Pata, an open field that provided an advantageous setting for his cavalry. The Mandara army attempted to attack Adama’s force but was unsuccessful and forced to retreat. Adama pursued them to Dulo, the capital of Mandara, which fell with little resistance. However, Mai Bukar retreated further east to Mora, a location with better defence against cavalry. Dulo suffered extensive devastation at the hands of Adama’s army. Adama then faced challenges in establishing a stable government in the city as most of its able-bodied inhabitants had either perished in battle or fled with Bukar. It became clear that Adama would need to remain in Mandara for an extended period to establish any form of governance. Complicating matters, the behaviour of his men made this task difficult as their focus shifted solely to acquiring war spoils, neglecting the defence of the town. Subsequently, the Mandara warriors returned to Dulo, swiftly recaptured it, and pursued the Fulbe forces well beyond the borders of the kingdom.

The deteriorating relationship between Mandara and the Fulani worsened when Mai Bukar initiated raids on Fulani camps within his territory, capturing many Fulani Muslims as slaves. Concurrently, the Fulani settlements in Maroua, Mindif, Guider, and Bogo were solidifying their control over the Diamare region and the Mundang people. Prior to Adama’s jihad, Bukar frequently utilized these settlements for slave raids. The increasing influence of the Fulani in the area significantly impacted Bukar’s economic and political power. In response to the slave raids, the Fulani constructed defensive outposts fortified with massive barricades, effectively defending against both Mandara and Bornu raiders. Consequently, an alliance formed between Bornu and Mandara against the Fulbe.

Battle of Mosfei

In 1823, a treaty of alliance was signed between Bornu and Mandara. Additionally, Mai Bukar offered his daughter in marriage to the Mai of Bornu, Ibrahim Ahmed. Together, they successfully launched a joint expedition into Musgum, located southwest of Mandara. By the end of 1823, tensions between Mandara and the Fulani reached their peak. The Bornu court received a delegation of well-armed Arabs, presenting an opportunity for another expedition. Bukar proposed targeting two Fulani strongholds: Mosfei and Zuay near Modzgo. However, the Fulani forces had entrenched themselves behind high palisade barriers and unleashed a barrage of poisoned arrows on the allied Bornu and Mandara forces. The Fulani defense proved too formidable, forcing the allied forces to retreat. This battle was witnessed by the explorer Dixon Denham, and his firsthand account can be found in Clapperton’s journal, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa.

Following the battle at Mosfei, the Fulani and Mandara entered a period of ongoing conflicts. To strengthen his position, Mai Bukar was compelled to fortify Mora and establish it as his administrative capital. Meanwhile, Dulo became the royal capital, where the Mai resided for parts of the year. Even today, when the Mais of Mandara ascend to the throne, they visit Dulo to don the leopard skin and other symbols associated with Gayae, the legendary founder of the kingdom. During this time, the Fulani gained control over the eastern part of Mandara. Settlements such as Mubi, Moda, Madagali, Michika, Guidder, and others firmly came under Adama’s domain, with each having its own Lamido.

By 1901, the emirates of Bida, Ilorin, Agaye, Lapai and Kontagora had fallen to the British through the Royal Niger Company. The aristocracy of Adamawa were held intense debates on whether to resist the British or submit when they eventually invade the emirate as the military might of the Royal Niger Company was much greater. The party who preferred to resist eventually won the debate. This party was led by the Lamido, Zubairu bin Adama. The other party included the Hamman Joda (the Qadi), Bobbo Ahmadu (the Lamido’s younger brother) and Yerima Iyabano (the Lamido’s nephew). Lamido Zubairu’s insistence on resistance was influenced by his hatred for the Europeans who divided and plan to further divide his emirate. By 1901, the Germans had already taken his sub-emirate Tibati and had been making moves towards taking the sub-emirates of Ngoundere and Bamnyo. His strong respect for the Sokoto Caliphate and its ideals also influenced his decision to resist.  In a letter to Sultan Abdurrahman announcing the fall of Yola to the British, Lamido Zubairu pledged:

I will not be two-faced, on your side and on the side of the Christians too. My allegiance is to you, to God and the Prophet, and after you to the Imam Mahdi. There is no surrender to the unbeliever even after the fall of the strongholds.

Invasion of Yola

Whilst the Germans fought the Adamawa Wars against the Emirate separately, the British deployed 22 European officers and NCOs and 365 mercenaries, 275-mm guns and 4 Maxim guns, led by Colonel T.N.L. Morland for the occupation of Yola on 2 September 1901. They travelled using steamboats on the lake Njuwa and were anchored near a baobob tree locally called Bokki Hampeto. Colonel Morland sent a Shuwa Arab resident of Yola to send a letter to the Lamido containing their terms. The messenger came back three minutes later with the message that Lamido Zubayru refused to receive the letter. Upon receiving this message, Morland moved his troops closer to the town and then sent his messenger once again to the Lamido with threat that if his letter is refused again, he would take steps to compel him to open it. Before the return of his Messager, people riding on horses came out of the town to block the British. The Messenger returned once again failing to deliver the letter to Lamido Zubairu as he was sent back and was told by the Lamido to warn Morland to retreat. More horsemen streamed out of the town to confront Morland and his forces. Morland calculated that it would be to their advantage to allow the people of Yola to attack first in the open. He felt it was much better than fighting in the narrow streets of Yola. He waited for the first attack from 10am to 1pm “after much shouting and exhorting from their mallams”. Despite the battle starting, Morland ordered his men to “reserve our fire till the leaders were within 200 yards” before he ordered for the maxim guns to be fired. After this attack, Morland’s forces went on the offensive. They advanced through the town till they reached the Lamido’s palace and Friday mosque which were heavily defended. Morland himself was wounded by an arrow. After this battle, the casualties Morland’s forces suffered were 2 men killed and 37 wounded while the Yola forces suffered 50 men killed and 150 wounded.